Pigeon Politics: How Pigeons Went from Royal Messengers to Urban Outcasts
Urbanisation and Pigeons
Why are pigeons so successful in cities? How do they adapt to urban challenges?
Pigeons (Columba livia) exhibit significant adaptability as urban inhabitants, flourishing in densely populated cities globally. Their resilience and adaptability arise from their ability to rapidly adjust to human-modified environments and efficiently utilise available resources (Taylor et al., 2021). Urban environments replicate the ancestral cliff habitats of pigeons, offering various suitable nesting sites on ledges, buildings, and bridges, which facilitate successful breeding and shelter (Fey et al., 2021). Their adaptation encompasses physiological and behavioural changes, including decreased flight initiation distances, indicating their comfort and familiarity with urban disturbances (Carlen, Winchell, and Li, 2021). Pigeons also display colour variations that enhance urban camouflage, allowing them to blend into city environments and avoid predators (Levenson, 2021). Pigeons' success in urban environments can be attributed to their remarkable adaptability, which is influenced by evolutionary flexibility, behavioural resilience, and their close relationship with humans (Taylor et al., 2021; Fey et al., 2021; Carlen et al., 2021; Levenson et al., 2015).
Thriving in the Urban Jungle: How Pigeons Compare to Other City Animals
Here, we explore exactly what makes pigeons so uniquely suited for life in cities, looking at their nesting habits, diet, intelligence, navigation, physical agility, social behaviour, adaptability to urban challenges, interactions with humans, and impacts on ecosystems (Taylor et al., 2013).
Nesting and Shelter
Pigeons have adapted their nesting strategies to urban environments by using artificial structures like rooftops, bridges and building ledges, which resemble their ancestral cliff habitats (Taylor et al., 2013). Crows primarily nest in tall trees, which are often scarce in dense urban settings, thereby increasing their susceptibility to habitat loss (Benmazouz et al., 2021). Rats exhibit a preference for subterranean burrows or concealed areas within human structures, leading to regular human interactions, including pest control measures and habitat disturbances (Richardson et al., 2025). Urban squirrels rely significantly on tree hollows or secure attics, which are increasingly scarce and frequently impacted by human activities or habitat fragmentation (Tranquillo et al., 2024). Pigeons' adaptable nesting behaviours enable them to inhabit urban environments more securely and comfortably than other prevalent urban species.
Diet and Foraging Habits
Pigeons exhibit significant dietary flexibility, successfully consuming seeds, grains, bread crumbs, and anthropogenic food waste, thereby capitalising on plentiful urban food resources (Taylor et al., 2013). Conversely, urban crows predominantly depend on insects, small animals, and nuts, necessitating greater foraging effort or specific habitats, thereby constraining their dietary adaptability (Benmazouz et al., 2021). Rats, while skilled scavengers, primarily rely on garbage and refuse, which heightens their exposure to harmful pathogens and toxins present in urban waste (Richardson et al., 2025). Squirrels depend on natural foods, including nuts, seeds, and berries, and often encounter scarcity during winter months or periods of significant urban development, which poses challenges to their survival in urbanised environments (Tranquillo et al., 2024). Pigeons employ a generalist foraging strategy that effectively positions them as successful urban survivors by optimising the opportunities presented by human activities and urban settings.
Cognitive and Navigational Abilities
Pigeons exhibit remarkable intelligence and navigational skills, exceeding those of numerous other urban wildlife species. The capacity to recognise human faces, memorise numerous distinct locations, and employ Earth's magnetic fields alongside visual landmarks for navigation provides a considerable advantage in urban settings (Scarf et al., 2016; Taylor et al., 2013). Crows demonstrate advanced cognitive abilities such as tool use and problem-solving, whereas pigeons exhibit a unique integration of memory, facial recognition, and precise navigation, which enhances their capacity to utilise human resources effectively (Benmazouz et al., 2021). Rats primarily depend on robust spatial memory for navigating confined spaces and locating food sources, yet they exhibit limited long-range navigational abilities (Richardson et al., 2025). Squirrels exhibit effective spatial memory for finding concealed food caches; however, they lack the sophisticated navigational abilities and facial recognition skills observed in pigeons (Tranquillo et al., 2024). The cognitive distinctions elucidate the unique adaptability of pigeons among urban fauna.
Social Structures and Cooperation
Pigeons demonstrate a cooperative social structure, often moving, feeding, and nesting in flocks. This behaviour enhances their resilience to urban challenges through collective vigilance and resource sharing (Taylor et al., 2013). This communal lifestyle significantly differs from that of solitary species like squirrels, which experience heightened vulnerability due to their isolated behaviours, reduced communal protection, and elevated stress levels in urban environments (Tranquillo et al., 2024). Pigeons exhibit relatively egalitarian and stable group structures, in contrast to rats, which frequently establish hierarchical colonies based on dominance. This promotes efficient cooperation and minimises internal competition (Richardson et al., 2025). Crows exhibit complex social networks; however, their group dynamics frequently entail competition for scarce resources, leading to aggressive interactions that may adversely affect their collective adaptability (Benmazouz et al., 2021). The cooperative flock structure of pigeons enables successful adaptation to densely populated urban environments.
Ecological Impact
In contrast to rats, which are associated with adverse effects in urban settings, including the spread of zoonotic diseases and the contamination of human habitats (Richardson et al., 2025), pigeons enhance urban biodiversity. Pigeons contribute to plant growth in urban environments through seed dispersal, thereby indirectly supporting other wildlife reliant on vegetation (Taylor et al., 2013). Pigeons serve as an essential food source for urban predators such as hawks and falcons, contributing to the overall ecological balance in urban environments (Fey et al., 2015; Benmazouz et al., 2021). The ecological roles of pigeons emphasise their advantageous contributions to urban environments, illustrating their importance beyond prevalent negative perceptions.
Urban Challenges and Adaptability -
Pigeons encounter various urban challenges, such as traffic hazards, predation by domestic animals and birds of prey, and regular human disturbances (Carlen et al., 2021). Pigeons have adapted effectively to artificial nesting sites such as ledges and rooftops, resembling their natural cliff habitats, in contrast to squirrels, which often face challenges in urban environments due to insufficient tree cover (Taylor et al., 2013). Crows exhibit significant intelligence but often encounter challenges, including heightened competition for food and nesting sites, which can result in aggressive behaviours towards other avian species (Benmazouz et al., 2021). Rats must continuously avoid rodent control measures, rendering them more susceptible to extermination and habitat disruption (Richardson et al., 2025).
Pigeons demonstrate behavioural adaptations that mitigate their risk in urban environments, such as reduced flight initiation distances, which enable them to navigate safely in close proximity to humans and traffic (Carlen et al., 2021). Pigeons have physiologically adapted to better tolerate urban noise and pollution compared to many other animals, which frequently exhibit increased stress levels in these environments (Fey et al., 2015). The integration of behavioural flexibility, physiological tolerance, and effective utilisation of urban resources distinguishes pigeons within urban wildlife, allowing them to prosper in swiftly evolving city environments globally.
Pigeon vs. Other City Wildlife
